For the values of sports
Let us pray that sports be an instrument of peace, encounter, and dialogue among cultures and nations, and that they promote values such as respect, solidarity, and personal growth.
Christian apologist, born at Flavia Neapolis, about A.D. 100, converted to Christianity about A.D. 130, taught and defended the Christian religion in Asia Minor and at Rome, where he suffered martyrdom about the year 165. Two "Apologies" bearing his name and his "Dialogue with the Jew Tryphon" have come down to us. Leo XIII had a Mass and an Office composed in his honor and set his feast for 14 April.
Among the Fathers of the second century his life is the best known, and from the most authentic documents. In both "Apologies" and in his "Dialogue" he gives many personal details, e.g. about his studies in philosophy and his conversion; they are not, however, an autobiography, but are partly idealized, and it is necessary to distinguish in them between poetry and truth; they furnish us however with several precious and reliable clues. For his martyrdom we have documents of undisputed authority. In the first line of his "Apology" he calls himself "Justin, the son of Priscos, son of Baccheios, of Flavia Neapolis, in Palestinian Syria". Flavia Neapolis, his native town, founded by Vespasian (A.D. 72), was built on the site of a place called Mabortha, or Mamortha, quite near Sichem (Guérin, "Samarie", I, Paris, 1874, 390-423; Schürer, "History of the Jewish People", tr., I, Edinburgh, 1885). Its inhabitants were all, or for the most part, pagans. The names of the father and grandfather of Justin suggest a pagan origin, and he speaks of himself as uncircumcised (Dialogue, xxviii). The date of his birth is uncertain but would seem to fall in the first years of the second century. He received a good education in philosophy, an account of which he gives us at the beginning of his "Dialogue with the Jew Tryphon"; he placed himself first under a Stoic, but after some time found that he had learned nothing about God and that in fact his master had nothing to teach him on the subject. A Peripatetic whom he then found welcomed him at first but afterwards demanded a fee from him; this proved that he was not a philosopher. A Pythagorean refused to teach him anything until he should have learned music, astronomy, and geometry. Finally, a Platonist arrived on the scene and for some time delighted Justin. This account cannot be taken too literally; the facts seem to be arranged with a view to showing the weakness of the pagan philosophies and of contrasting them with the teachings of the Prophets and of Christ. The main facts, however, may be accepted; the works of Justin seem to show just such a philosophic development as is here described, Eclectic, but owing much to Stoicism and more to Platonism. He was still under the charm of the Platonistic philosophy when, as he walked one day along the seashore, he met a mysterious old man; the conclusion of their long discussion was that he soul could not arrive through human knowledge at the idea of God, but that it needed to be instructed by the Prophets who, inspired by the Holy Ghost, had known God and could make Him known ("Dialogue", iii, vii; cf. Zahm, "Dichtung and Wahrheit in Justins Dialog mit dem Jeden Trypho" in "Zeitschr. für Kirchengesch.", VIII, 1885-1886, 37-66).
The "Apologies" throw light on another phase of the conversion of Justin: "When I was a disciple of Plato", he writes, "hearing the accusations made against the Christians and seeing them intrepid in the face of death and of all that men fear, I said to myself that it was impossible that they should be living in evil and in the love of pleasure" (II Apol., xviii, 1). Both accounts exhibit the two aspects of Christianity that most strongly influenced St. Justin; in the "Apologies" he is moved by its moral beauty (I Apol., xiv), in the "Dialogue" by its truth. His conversion must have taken place at the latest towards A.D. 130, since St. Justin places during the war of Bar-Cocheba (132-135) the interview with the Jew Tryphon, related in his "Dialogue". This interview is evidently not described exactly as it took place, and yet the account cannot be wholly fictitious. Tryphon, according to Eusebius (Hist. eccl., IV, xviii, 6), was "the best known Jew of that time", which description the historian may have borrowed from the introduction to the "Dialogue", now lost. It is possible to identify in a general way this Tryphon with the Rabbi Tarphon often mentioned in the Talmud (Schürer, "Gesch. d. Jud. Volkes", 3rd ed., II, 377 seq., 555 seq., cf., however, Herford, "Christianity in Talmud and Midrash", London, 1903, 156). The place of the interview is not definitely told, but Ephesus is clearly enough indicated; the literary setting lacks neither probability nor life, the chance meetings under the porticoes, the groups of curious onlookers who stop a while and then disperse during the interviews, offer a vivid picture of such extemporary conferences. St. Justin lived certainly some time at Ephesus; the Acts of his martyrdom tell us that he went to Rome twice and lived "near the baths of Timothy with a man named Martin". He taught school there, and in the aforesaid Acts of his martyrdom we read of several of his disciples who were condemned with him.
In his second "Apology" (iii) Justin says: "I, too, expect to be persecuted and to be crucified by some of those whom I have named, or by Crescens, that friend of noise and of ostentation." Indeed, Tatian relates (Discourse, xix) that the Cynic philosopher Crescens did pursue him and Justin; he does not tell us the result and, moreover, it is not certain that the "Discourse" of Tatian was written after the death of Justin. Eusebius (Hist. eccl., IV, xvi, 7, 8) says that it was the intrigues of Crescens which brought about the death of Justin; this is credible, but not certain; Eusebius has apparently no other reason for affirming it than the two passages cited above from Justin and Tatian. St. Justin was condemned to death by the prefect, Rusticus, towards A.D. 165, with six companions, Chariton, Charito, Evelpostos, Pæon, Hierax, and Liberianos. We still have the authentic account of their martyrdom ("Acta SS.", April, II, 104-19; Otto, "Corpus Apologetarum", III, Jena, 1879, 266-78; P. G., VI, 1565-72). The examination ends as follows:
"The Prefect Rusticus says: Approach and sacrifice, all of you, to the gods. Justin says: No one in his right mind gives up piety for impiety. The Prefect Rusticus says: If you do not obey, you will be tortured without mercy. Justin replies: That is our desire, to be tortured for Our Lord, Jesus Christ, and so to be saved, for that will give us salvation and firm confidence at the more terrible universal tribunal of Our Lord and Saviour. And all the martyrs said: Do as you wish; for we are Christians, and we do not sacrifice to idols. The Prefect Rusticus read the sentence: Those who do not wish to sacrifice to the gods and to obey the emperor will be scourged and beheaded according to the laws. The holy martyrs glorifying God betook themselves to the customary place, where they were beheaded and consummated their martyrdom confessing their Saviour."
Read it all: St. Justin Martyr - Saints & Angels - Catholic Online
By Alessandro Di Bussolo and Francesca Merlo
On Saturday evening, at the Lourdes Grotto in the Vatican Gardens, Pope Leo XIV led the Rosary and invoked the intercession of the Blessed Virgin Mary, asking her to obtain “the gift of peace” that only the Lord can give. Joining him were around 2,000 people in the Vatican, while a further 100,000 faithful took part remotely from 200 Marian shrines around the world.
Today, on the final day of May, the Pope returned to the theme of peace during the Angelus in St Peter’s Square, where more than 20,000 people had gathered. Once again, he appealed for prayers for peace.
“Throughout the month of May, the whole Church has raised a united prayer for peace. Through the Rosary in particular, like an unbroken chain, the faithful have entrusted to the Virgin Mary’s intercession those peoples devastated by war. May divine Wisdom enlighten the consciences of those who hold authority and guide their decisions towards the sincere pursuit of a just and lasting peace.”
Pope Leo XIV also noted that Italy is marking the 25th Day of Relief, which this year carries the theme: “I Take Care.”
“I am close to those who are ill and to all who care for them. I thank and encourage everyone who helps to spread a culture of closeness and care.”
The initiative aims to raise awareness of the importance of relieving both physical and emotional suffering. Particular attention is given to palliative care, pain management, the humanization of healthcare, and the training of volunteers who support patients and their families.
Among the groups he greeted after the Angelus, the Pope also addressed participants in the annual pilgrimage to the Marian shrine of Piekary in Poland, where Mary is honored as the mother of Social Justice.
The shrine has been a center of Marian devotion since the seventeenth century. According to local tradition, a large pilgrimage for boys and men takes place each May, drawing tens of thousands of participants, while a corresponding pilgrimage for girls and women is held in August.
By Kielce Gussie
Celebrating the Solemnity of the Most Holy Trinity, Pope Leo XIV joined thousands in St. Peter’s Square for his weekly Angelus prayer and greeting. Reflecting on the Mystery of the Triune God, he explained gives us a chance to look back at our own journey, beginning with God’s life given to us in Jesus.
This life, the Pope said, “is a dynamic, inexhaustible and faith communion that draw us in.” The Holy Spirit, who brings together the Father and the Son, has been placed on our hearts. Through this, he continued, the Church “becomes a sacrament of communion, a place of encounter, love and life where heaven and earth already touch.”
Reflecting on the Gospel of the day, Pope Leo turned to the person of Nicodemus, who was deeply drawn to Jesus. Despite his eagerness to get to know and understand who Jesus was, Nicodemus sought him out at night to avoid being seen.
Jesus, however, welcomed Nicodemus and surprised him with an answer: that even an adult can be reborn. Nicodemus learned that God could transform his life.
As Jesus spoke about the Holy Spirit, Nicodemus’ “interior darkness was illuminated with the truth—the same truth that resounds throughout the Church in our celebration of today’s feast.” This is the truth that “God so loved the world that he gave his only Son, so that everyone who believes in him may not perish but may have eternal life” (vs. 16) and that “God did not send the Son into the world to condemn the world, but in order that the world might be saved through him” (vs. 17).
Pope Leo explained that in the mystery of the Triune God—Father, Son, and Holy Spirit—“we are at home” like Nicodemus was in Jesus’ presence. The life of God is captivating. “It gives peace to our heart, which is often very restless, and it allows us to encounter our brothers and sisters in the joy of the Spirit.”
The Trinity helps us to love everyone and everything because through it, we understand that every created thing is made for relationship, communion, and encounter. Yet, on the other hand, we learn why polarization, a dislike of diversity, and division lead to sadness, destruction, and an emptiness in the world.
When Nicodemus, a member of the Sanhedrin (council of the high priests of Israel), heard any hateful words against Jesus, he would challenge everyone to listen before condemning him. Nicodemus has received the Spirit of communion, which opens hearts to new truths and to true renewal.
“Whoever does not welcome this Spirit grows old quickly, in sorrow, feeling all alone and without joy in their hearts,” Pope Leo shared.
Today, the Pope continued, is a day of celebration because God’s feast is ours as well. With the Angelus prayer, he urged everyone to be like Mary and say “yes” to God’s will. “May our ‘yes’ to the love of the Most Holy Trinity also bear fruit.”
By Kielce Gussie
Joining people and Marian shrines all around the world, Pope Leo XIV prayed the Joyful Mysteries of the Rosary at the Grotto of Lourdes in the Vatican Gardens, specifically remembering those living in areas affected by war and violence.
“Let me hear what God the Lord will speak, for he will speak peace to his people, to his faithful, to those who turn to him in their hearts” (Ps 85:8).
The Pope opened his reflection at the end of the five decades with this Psalm, which, he noted, expresses the “hope of which we stand in need, especially in the face of current difficulties and violence.”
He urged everyone—those present in the Vatican Gardens and all those connected around the world—to “dispose their hearts” to be open to hearing the word of God, so that through prayer “we may come to understand the meaning of the events of history” and see God’s providence guiding and sustaining us.
The Virgin Mary, Pope Leo highlighted, is the model example of a believer who turns their heart to listen to “what God says.” For us, she is an example of obedience as she welcomed Jesus into her womb.
Looking at the Mysteries of the Rosary with Mary helps us to see in Jesus the “one final Word spoke by the Father, a Word of peace for all who return to him with contrite hearts.” That is, God never abandons us, even when we ignore or forget him or when we lose our way. He looks for us and brings us back to him.
Peace, the Pope stressed, “is not a theory to be tested in a laboratory, nor a naïve illusion, nor a matter to be pursued out of self-interest.” Rather, it must be looked for with a sincere heart. It is a daily commitment. Peace comes from justice and love. It is the harmony that brings families, people, communities, and nations together.
Even in the midst of the current global situation—violence, war, and conflict—Pope Leo explained that “peace becomes possible when we choose to listen to the cry of those deprived of it: innocent children, anguished mothers and fathers, abused prisoners, refugees and people of every age who suffer.”
All these groups “have but one word upon their lips: peace!”
Peace is always possible because it is a gift from God. His peace has a face—the face of Jesus Christ, the Son of God. It is Jesus who shatters the walls of hostility and defeats arrogance with humility. He redeems all creation from sin.
When Jesus is with us and we live like true disciples of his love, then the Holy Spirit is able to make possible what seems humanly impossible. Conversely, when we distance ourselves from God, we also move away from others and become indifferent to their struggles and suffering.
“Every time we return to the Lord, his peace becomes our responsibility, according to the duties and tasks of each person,” the Pope reminded everyone. That means our prayer is more than prayer—it becomes our mission and our prophecy.
The cry of innocent people must no longer be heard in cities. No one should be forced to leave their homes due to the threat of bombs. The thirst for power and the “violence of words” must stop and make room for justice and truth.
Everyone can and must do their part to achieve peace, the Pope urged. It must start with “small but important things, abstaining from every form of verbal or physical violence in daily life and also on social media.”
True peace, he explained, starts with a heart that loves when people speak words of reconciliation and when we look at the world with gentleness and wisdom. “This is true strength, the strength of truth and love.”
Closing, Pope Leo stresses that God is looking for peacemakers. He asked Mary, our Blessed Mother, to “help us to answer him each day with our own “Here I am,” not only in words but in deeds.”
Vatican News
Pope Leo XIV welcomed representatives of the Catholic Charismatic Renewal to the Vatican on Saturday. Greeting members of communities, prayer groups, and evangelization schools from around the world, as well as leaders of CHARIS, the international service body of the Renewal, the Pope described the movement's spiritual vitality as one of the gifts with which God has blessed the Church.
The Catholic Charismatic Renewal was founded in the late 1960s and today encompasses prayer groups, communities, and evangelization initiatives across the world.
It places particular emphasis on the action of the Holy Spirit in the lives of believers through prayer, worship, Scripture and missionary outreach. Since 2019, the various expressions of the Renewal have been brought together through CHARIS, established by Pope Francis to foster communion and service.
Reflecting on the movement's development in the decades following the Second Vatican Council, Pope Leo recalled the appreciation shown by his predecessors.
He noted that Saint Paul VI saw in the Renewal a response to the growing secularization of society, while Pope St. John Paul II highlighted its missionary impulse and Pope Benedict XVI praised its emphasis on the gifts of the Holy Spirit.
The Pope also recalled Pope Francis' description of the Renewal as a "flood of grace" intended for the entire Church.
Expressing his desire to strengthen the relationship between the See of Peter and the worldwide family of the Catholic Charismatic Renewal, Pope Leo reflected on five key dimensions of its spiritual experience: baptism in the Spirit, prayer of praise, the Word of God, communion, and charity.
Beginning with baptism in the Spirit, he said the shared journey of faith within the Renewal has its source in "the personal experience of the Holy Spirit," which enables the grace of Baptism to become effective in the lives of believers and leads them to a deeper awareness of God's love.
The Pope explained that through this encounter, "God ceased to be a mere idea and became the real and ultimate expression of fatherhood."
The Holy Spirit, he said, brings reconciliation, peace and freedom, while opening believers to hope and to the certainty that nothing can separate them from the love of Christ.
"From this experience of the Holy Spirit comes the inner desire to be witnesses and heralds of his love," he said, as he encouraged members of the Renewal to bring God's consolation to those suffering from loneliness and emptiness.
Turning to prayer, Pope Leo reflected on the place of praise and worship within the Charismatic tradition. The experience of the Holy Spirit, he explained, gives rise to a more spontaneous and sincere dialogue with God and opens the heart to thanksgiving and adoration.
"Worship and praise, which are so characteristic of your gatherings, are essential aspects of Christian prayer," he said. He noted that the Renewal has helped many rediscover these dimensions of prayer and bring them back to the forefront of Christian life.
The Pope also highlighted the importance of the Word of God within the life of the Renewal. The same Spirit who inspired Sacred Scripture, he said, continues to make it alive and active in the Church today.
"Scripture has therefore become for you a wonderful source of spiritual nourishment that enlightens and comforts," he said, adding that it serves as a source of discernment for daily choices and enriches communal prayer.
Turning then to reflect on communion, Pope Leo stressed that "the Holy Spirit is the wellspring of communion."
He recalled the longstanding tradition of praying to the Holy Spirit for Christian unity, he said members of the Renewal have a particular appreciation for the Spirit's role in building harmony within the Church and fostering relationships with Christians of other denominations.
The Holy Spirit, he explained, creates unity among the various charisms and communities of the Renewal while strengthening bonds throughout the wider Christian family.
Concluding his reflections, the Pope focused on charity, describing it as one of the clearest fruits of life in the Spirit.
"The renewed presence of the Spirit has awakened in you a new capacity to love," he said, a love directed both towards God and towards neighbour, particularly those who suffer.
Praising the many charitable initiatives that have emerged from the Renewal, Pope Leo encouraged members to remain attentive to the poor and vulnerable. "I invite you, then, to keep alive this love for the poor, which reveals the true face of God," he said.
Bringing his address to a close, the Pope encouraged members of the Renewal to continue their mission within the Church.
"Put yourselves at the service of your dioceses and parishes," he urged. "Take care never to give way to the desire for self-promotion, or the pursuit of power or personal prestige."
Pope Leo concluded by praying that the Spirit would always be "a light and a source of strength" on their personal and communal journey.
Feastday: May 30
Patron: of soldiers and France
Birth: 1412
Death: 1431
Canonized: Pope Benedict XV
St. Joan of Arc is the patroness of soldiers and of France.
On January 6, 1412, Joan of Arc was born to pious parents of the French peasant class in the obscure village of Domremy, near the province of Lorraine. At a very early age, she was said to have heard the voices of St. Michael, St. Catherine, and St. Margaret.
At first the messages were personal and general, but when she was 13-years-old, she was in her father's garden and had visions of Saint Michael, Saint Catherine, and Saint Margaret, each of whom told her to drive the English from French territory. They also asked that she bring the Dauphin to Reims for his coronation.
After their messages were delivered and the saints departed, Joan cried, as "they were so beautiful."
When she was sixteen-years-old, she asked her relative, Durand Lassois, to take her to Vaucouleurs, where she petitioned Robert de Baudricourt, the garrison commander, for permission to visit the French Royal Court in Chinon.
Despite Baudricourt's sarcastic response to her request, Joan returned the following January and left with the support of two of Baudricourt's soldiers: Jean de Metz and Bertrand de Poulengy.
Jean de Metz admitted Joan had confided in him, saying, "I must be at the King's side ... there will be no help if not from me. Although I would rather have remained spinning [wool] at my mother's side ... yet must I go and must I do this thing, for my Lord wills that I do so."
With Metz and Poulengy at her side, Joan met Baudricourt and predicted a military reversal at the Battle of Rouvray near Orléans, which were confirmed several days later by a messenger's report. When Baudricourt realized the distance of the battle's location and the time it would have taken Joan to make the journey, he concluded she had seen the reversal by Divine revelation, which caused him to believe her words.
Once she had Baudricourt's belief, Joan was granted an escort to Chinon through hostile Burgundian territory. For her safety, she was escorted while dressed as a male soldier, which later led to charges of cross-dressing, but her escorts viewed as a sound precaution.
Two members of her escort confirmed they and the people of Vaucouleurs gave her the clothing and had been the ones to suggest she don the outfit.
When she arrived in the Royal Court, she met in a private conference with Charles VII and won his trust. Yolande of Aragon, Charles' mother-in-law, planned a finance relief expedition to Orléans and Joan asked to travel with the army while wearing armor, which the Royal government agreed to. They also provided Joan's armor and she depended on donations for everything she took with her.
With a donated horse, sword, banner, armor, and more, Joan arrived to Orléans and quickly turned the Anglo-French conflict into a religious war.
Charles' advisors worried Joan's claims of doing God's work could be twisted by his enemies, who could easily claim she was a sorceress, which would link his crown to works of the devil. To prevent accusations, the Dauphin ordered background inquiries and a theological exam at Poitiers to verify Joan's claims.
In April 1429, the commission of inquiry "declared her to be of irreproachable life, a good Christian, possessed of the virtues of humility, honesty and simplicity." Rather than deciding on whether or not Joan was acting on the basis of divine inspiration, theologians at Poitiers told the Dauphin there was a "favorable presumption" on the divine nature of her mission.
Charles was satisfied with the report but theologians reminded him Joan must be tested. They claimed, "[t]o doubt or abandon her without suspicion of evil would be to repudiate the Holy Spirit and to become unworthy of God's aid."
They suggested her test should be a test of her claim to lift the siege of Orléans, as she originally predicted would happen.
In response to the test, Joan arrived at Orléans on April 29, 1429, where Jean d'Orléans, the acting head of the ducal family of Orléans, ensured she was excluded from war councils and kept ignorant of battles.
During the five months prior to Joan's arrival to Orléans, the French had only attempted one offensive assault, which resulted in their defeat, but after her arrival, things began to change.
Though Joan claimed the army was always commanded by a nobleman and that she never killed anyone in battle since she preferred only to carry her banner, which she preferred "forty times" better than a sword, several noblemen claimed she greatly effected their decisions since they accepted she gave Divinely inspired advice.
On May 4, the Armagnacs captured the fortress of Saint Loup and the next day led to fortress Saint-Jean-le-Blanc, which was deserted. With Joan at the army's side, English troops approached the army to stop their advance but a cavalry charge was all it took to turn the English away without a fight.
The Armagnacs captured an English fortress build around the Les Augustins monastery and attacked the English stronghold Les Tourelles on May 7. Joan was shot with an arrow between her neck and shoulder as she held her banner outside Les Tourelles, but returned to encourage the final assault to take the fortress. The next day, the English retreated from Orléans and the siege was over.
When Joan was in Chinon and Poitiers, she had declared she would show a sign at Orléans, which many believe was the end of the siege. Following the departure of the English, prominent clergymen began to support her, including the Archbishop of Embrun and the theologian Jean Gerson, each of which wrote supportive treatises.
After the Orléans victory, Joan was able to persuade Charles VII to allow her to march into other battles to reclaim cities, each of which ended in victory. When the military supplies began to dwindle, they reached Troyes, where Brother Richard, a wandering friar, had warned the city about the end of the world and was able to convince them to plant beans, which yields an early harvest. Just as the beans ripened, Joan and the army arrived and was able to restore their supplies.
Following their march to Troyes, Joan and the French military made its way to Paris, where politicians failed to secure Duke Philip of Burgundy's agreement to a truce. Joan was present at the following battles and suffered a leg wound from a crossbow bolt. Despite one failed mission - taking La-Charité-sur-Loire" - Joan and her family were ennobled by Charles VII in reward of her actions on the battlefield.
A truce with England came following Joan's ennoblement but was quickly broken. When Joan traveled to Compiègne to help defend against an English and Burgundian siege, she was captured by Burgundian troops and held for a ransom of 10,000 livres tournois. There were several attempts to free her and Joan made many excape attempts, including jumping from her 70-foot (21m) tower, landing on the soft earth of a dry moat, but to no avail. She was eventually sold to the English for 10,000 gold coins and was then tried as a heretic and witch in a trial that violated the legal process of the time.
Clerical notary Nicolas Bailly, who was responsible to collect testimony against Joan, was unable to find any evidence against her. Without evidence, the courts lacked grounds to initiate trial but one was opened anyway. They denied Joan the right to a legal advisor and filled the tribunal with pro-English clergy rather than meeting the medieval Church's requirement to balance the group with impartial clerics.
When the first public examination opened, Joan pointed out that the partisans were against her and she asked for "ecclesiastics of the French side" to provide balance, but her request was denied.
Jean Lemaitre, the Vice-Inquisitor of Northern France, objected to the trial from the beginning and many eyewitnesses later reported he was forced to cooperate after the English threatened to kill him. Other members of the clergy were threatened when they refused as well, so the trial continued.
The trial record includes statements from Joan that eyewitnesses later claimed astonished the court since she was an illiterate peasant who was able to escape theological traps. The most well-known exchange was when Joan was "[a]sked if she knew she was in God's grace, she answered: 'If I am not, may God put me there; and if I am, may God so keep me.'"
The question is a trap because the church doctrine was that no one could be certain of being in God's grace. If she answered yes, she would have been charged with heresy, but if she answered no, she would have been confessing her own guilt. Notary Boisguillaume later testified that "[t]hose who were interrogating her were stupefied."
Many members of the tribunal later testified important parts of the transcript were altered.
Joan was held in a secular prison guarded by English soldiers, instead of being in an ecclesiastical prison with nuns as her guards per Inquisitorial guidelines. When Joan appealed to the Council of Basel and the Pope to be placed in a proper prison, Bishop Cauchon denied her request, which would have stopped his proceeding.
While imprisoned, Joan wore military clothing so she could tie her clothing together, making it harder to be raped. There was no protection in a dress, and a few days after she started wearing one she told a tribunal member that "a great English lord had entered her prison and tried to take her by force." Following the attempted rape, Joan returned to wearing male clothing as a precaution and to raise her defenses against molestation.
Jean Massieu testified her dress had been taken by the guards and she had nothing else to wear.
When she returned to male clothing, she was given another count of heresy for cross-dressing, though it was later disputed by the inquisitor presiding over court appeals after the war. He found that cross-dressing should be evaluated based on context, including the use of clothing as protection against rape if it offered protection.
In accordance to the inquisitor's doctrine, Joan would have been justified in wearing armor on a battlefield, men's clothing in prison and dressing as a pageboy when traveling through enemy territory.
The Chronique de la Pucelle states it deterred molestation when Joan was camped in the field but she donned a dress when men's garments were unnecessary.
Clergy who testified at the posthumous appellate trial confirmed that she wore male clothing in prison to deter molestation.
Though the Poitiers record did not survive the test of time, Joan had referred the court to the Poitiers inquiry when questioned about her clothing and circumstances indicate the Poitiers clerics approved the practive. She had also kept her hair short through the military campaigns and during her imprisonment, which Inquisitor Brehal, theologian Jean Gerson and all of Joan's supporters understood was for practical reasons.
Despite the lack of incriminating evidence, Joan was condemned and sentenced to die in 1431.
Eyewitness accounts of Joan's execution by burning on May 30, 1431 describe how she was tied to a tall pillar at the Vieux-Marché in Rouen. She asked Fr. Martin Ladvenu and Fr. Isambart de la Pierre to hold a crucifix before her and an English soldier made a small cross she put in the front of her dress. After she died, the English raked the coals to expose her body so no one could spread rumors of her escaping alive, then they burned her body two more times to reduce it to ashes so no one could collect relics. After burning her body to ash, the English threw her remains into the Seine River and the executioner, Geoffroy Thérage, later said he "... greatly feared to be damned."
In 1452, during an investigation into Joan's execution, the Church declared a religious play in her honor at Orléans would let attendees gain an indulgence by making a pilgrimage to the event.
A posthumous retrial opened following the end of the war. Pope Callixtus III authorized the proceeding, which has also been called the "nullification trial," after Inquisitor-General Jean Bréhal and Joan's mother Isabelle Romée requested it.
The trial was meant to determine if Joan's condemnation was justly handled, and of course at the end of the investication Joan received a formal appeal in November 1455 and the appellate court declared Joan innocent on July 7 1456.
Joan of Arc was a symbol of the Catholic League during the 16th century and when Félix Dupanloup was made bishop of Orléans in 1849, he pronounced a panegyric on Joan of Arc and led efforts leading to Joan of Arc's beatification in 1909. On May 16, 1920, Pope Benedict XV canonized her.
Centuries after her death, Joan became known as a semi-legendary figure. There were several sources of information about her life, time on the battlefield and trials, with the main sources being chronicles.
Many women have seen Joan as a brave and active woman who operated within a religious tradition that believed a person of any class could receive a divine calling.
Joan of Arc has been depicted in several works by famous writers such as William Shakespeare (Henry VI, Part 1), Voltaire (The Maid of Orleans), Mark Twain (Personal Recollections of Joan of Arc), and many many more.
